Challenges Faced by a Country for Economic Development Essay

An economy is flourishing and is shown to be beneficial and fruitful for the people living in it only when the growth of the economy goes up continuously. It is essential for a country to not only develop politically or socially but it also needs to demonstrate economic development in order to sustain in the international market and in order to come ahead of other countries. But it is not very easy for any economy to economically keep growing because an umpteen number of internal and external factors that affect the growth and the economic development and it is essential and crucial for the countries to address the issues and move ahead. There are some very common challenges that are faced by an economy that are discussed below. The presence of external imbalances in the global economy is one of the most influential causes that impose a challenge on the economic development of any country. There can be reasons such as political disruptions, changes in import-export scenario or foreign currency reserve changes that can lead to imbalance in a country that is external to an economy. But the disruptions taking place in one country can adversely affect the economy and economic growth of other countries as well. The monetary and fiscal policies adopted by the government of an economy also have a huge role to play in the economic development. These policies tend to impact the interest rates, money supply and foreign exchange rates of an economy and if the policies are not in the favor of the growth, they can become major challenges and major issues all over the country. Read more: Essay About Disadvantages of Population The change in trade situations can also affect the economies. Exports of a country help it in generating external revenues while imports can be done for different purposes such as facilitation of a manufacturing process, providing basic necessities to the people etc. And hence if there is an imbalance in the external trade that is taking place in a country, it can lead to severe turbulence and can adversely impact the economic growth. Other economic factors such as poverty, inflation rate, population also are dependent on an economy and also impact the economy. If a nation has higher level of poverty, it is more likely to have economic challenges and similarly high population is not desired and not advisable for high economic growth. And that is the reason why the governments usually try to avoid these unfavorable situations and try to maintain a balance in the countries by different measures. There are many more reasons why the economies face severe challenge of demonstrating growth and hence it is crucial for the countries to adopt different and new policies in order to avoid these challenges and facilitate growth. Reference: http://classof1.com/homework-help/international-economics-homework-help/ View as multi-pages

Сhange Management

Section 1 Demonstrate your understanding of the background to organisational strategic changeDiscuss models of strategic changeThere are a number strategic change models – such as the evolutionary model and, currently popular, the sustainability maturity model – you will need to briefly describe the main, established models, and their most common uses Diploma in Strategic Management and Leadership Unit 3: Strategic Change ManagementEvaluate the relevance of models of strategic change to organisations in the current economyFollowing on from the above point, discuss how relevant each model is in today’s business environment – dominated in the West by the continuing recession, and in the East by rapid expansion of internal demand but constraints due to the recession affecting external markets ï‚ · assess the value of using strategic intervention techniques in organisationsAn â€Å"intervention†, in this context, is when a strategic change (of direct ion/policy) is made in order to re-align the organisation with the current business and external environments. An example of this is the strategic intervention that many organisations have been forced to make due to the exponential growth of on-line, internet sales – of products and services which until very recently were safe and profitable off-line, traditional markets. You will need to discuss why using strategic intervention techniques is necessary and what the benefit could, or should, be.Section 2Demonstrate your understanding of the issues relating to strategic change in an organisation – examine the need for strategic change in an organisationHere you will need to select a specific organisation, or type of organisation, and analyse, examine, the need for strategic change in that organisation. An example of a suitable organisation would be a major high-street retailer, or a West based manufacturer facing increasing competition, mainly on costs, from the East, or a family-owned business that needs funding for growth which is only available by becoming a PLC. An alternative would be to select a business sector, and discuss this from the point of view of organisations operating in that sector. assess the factors that are driving the need for strategic change in an organisationUsing the organisation(s) that you selected in the point above, assess the relative importance of – potential impact of – each of the factors that is driving the need for strategic change – assess the resource implications of the organisation not responding to strategic changeA major strategic change is usually costly, in terms of human, physical, and financial resources, and often, reputation, image, brand awareness, for example – but the cost of not changing direction, not adopting a new strategy, can be far greater and potentially devastating. You will need to discuss this.Section 3Explain how you would be able to lead stakeholders in devel oping a strategy for change – develop systems to involve stakeholders in the planning of changeStakeholders in an organisation can include: operational employees, managers, suppliers, customers, clients, funding organisations, trades unions, professional associations, local authorities, local communities, the local and national media, government, and more. Here you need to devise and present a system – a process – a plan – that will involve such stakeholders in the planning of change in an organisation Diploma in Strategic Management and Leadership Unit 3: Strategic Change Management– develop a change management strategy with stakeholdersFollowing on from the point above, you will need to outline how you would involve stakeholders in the development of a change management strategy ï‚ · evaluate the systems used to involve stakeholders in the planning of changeThere are established mechanisms, methods, systems, designed to involve stakeholders in the planning of change – the decision making process. You will need to briefly describe these and give your view as to the effectiveness of each – create a strategy for managing resistance to changeResistance to strategic change is almost inevitable – but it can be minimized / localised – there are established, proven methods of overcoming, or at least minimising, resistance to change – an obvious one is to involve as many people as possible in the early discussions, decision-making, and implementation of a strategic change, but there are others you will need to research and discuss In the strategy that you create, you should take into account the possibility of resistance from any or all of the stakeholders – operational employees, suppliers, middle to senior managers, customers, suppliers, shareholders, unions, external agencies, and so on.Section 4Explain how you would plan to implement models for ensuring ongoing change – develop appropriate models for changeHere you will need to discuss available models, and against the background of continuous, ongoing change (remember the saying â€Å"Change is permanent!), discuss the core model of change that you propose, and then describe the actual, completed model that you plan to use – plan to implement a model for changeFollowing on from the point above, here you need to prepare an outline plan – showing timescales, resources, stages, and objectives, for the implementation of your change approach – develop appropriate measures to monitor progressJust as it asks †¦ straightforward monitoring and control for effective  implementation – virtually the same approach as would be taken for the monitoring and controlling of the implementation stage of any project or plan – but †¦ don’t forget the â€Å"resistance† factor has to be addressed Don’t forget that you also need to write a Reflective Statement and add a list of Sources of Information-References showing any books, websites, articles, case studies, reports, internal documents, people interviewed, that you drew on to complete this assignment. The Reflective Statement and Sources of Information

Management info Systems Project WK3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Management info Systems Project WK3 - Essay Example st important advance in e-commerce with regards to SCM is the increasing use of electronic marketplaces that enhance many suppliers and thousands of customers. However, the significance of the marketplace is to have numerous suppliers competing over prices. Therefore, the integration of e-commerce, value chain analysis and supply chain management automate the purchasing and selling of goods and services by an organization. Therefore, more research questions come in mind 1) what are the impacts of e-commerce in an organization, 2) what are the beneficial opportunities for application of e-commerce in a business etc. These questions fascinate me and that is why I am so interested in researching on the same. Bidgoli on chapter 8 thoroughly explores e-commerce and differentiates it with ancient models. This chapter will give me an opportunity to understand e-commerce so as to apply it in supply chain management. Geunes researches on the application of supply chain and e-commerce in an organization. The book provides answers to my research questions because it expounds on the benefits of integrating e-commerce and supply chain management and the benefits that result from this integration. Rekha further has explored the impacts of e-commerce on supply chain management. He has highlighted and provided insightful thoughts that will greatly assist me in my final project. Therefore, i belive that this journal will help me achieve my

Field outing report on High Park Lab Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Field outing on High Park - Lab Report Example Introduction For the past decades, there has been a massive increase of the numbers of visitors visiting High Park. I must admit that my experience in High Park created a strong platform for me to appreciate nature and its wide range of species. This park is found in a hilly landscape and it is well-known for its natural park, sporting facilities, the zoo, playgrounds, education facilities, and cultural facilities. Since its establishment, the park has ranked the largest within Toronto city. While in the park, I found out that the park is the home to various wildlife species that to date attracts millions of visitors across the globe. This report provides a detailed description of the habitat I explored, the plants I saw, and the supplementary information I researched about the plants’ features. I had an amazing opportunity to watch the rare Black Oak Savannah habitat. About a third of the park environment consists of rare oak savannah with an open landscape. Most experts beli eve that the Oak savannah at this park is continentally significant because of its nature, size, and features of the remnant ecosystem (High Park Toronto, 2013). This research shows that, the black oak savannah of the High Park is considered significant because of its virtue of location and different plants that are unique and rare to find. For over 150 years, the Black Oak Savannah habitat has been an outstanding environment for different types of wildlife. This is because Oak trees have nesting sites for insects and birds and its acorns are the excellent food for wild turkey, deer, rodents, and other species. The parks department has implemented programs of acorn collection to attract a wide number of visitors who have a passion for such collection. The species I found in High Park are rare and unique to find in a park such as cup-plant and wild lupine. The low-nutrient and dry conditions of the Black Oak savannah of High Park supports the growing conditions of various plants such as Indian grass, little bluestem, and big bluestem whose binominal name is Prairie grasses. Additionally, it attracts prairie flowers such like wild lupine, showy tick-trefoil, and cylindrical blazing star. After a thorough investigation, I found out that there are various species that bloom well between the month of June and July such as rockrose, wild lupine, and New Jersey tea. There are other species that blossom well in the mid and late summer such as sunflower and bean family. At the High Park, there are notable wetland plant species such as sweet flag categorized as Acorus Calamus, blue-flag iris categorized as Iris Versicolor, and common arrowhead classified as Sagittaria latifolia. I must admit that High Park is the ideal place for visitors who love nature and ecology system. In essence, the park has different plants, trees, and flowers that capture many people’s attention. The place is so appealing in that one can pick a new favourite tree or flower each time he vi sits the park. The following section discusses some plants I found in the park plus their characteristics. Butterfly Weed (Asclepias tuberose) Butterfly weed also known as Pleurisy root is a native plant categorized in the class of tall grass prairies. This plant is the most attracting plant around that attracts many butterflies. The plant grows well in well and strong drained type of soil. In the park, the plant tolerates clay to sand soil and grows well in full sun and

Monopolies and oligopolies Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Monopolies and oligopolies - Coursework Example In engaging in such an action, Google as company put other players at a fix. In other words, due to the unhealthy competition, firms in the European Economic Area (EEA) suffered both peculiar and non-peculiar cost. Through analysis, whenever there is a genuine complaint antitrust, it is linked with the dollar figure sense, and for the case of Google, it was worse since it was related to fix pricing. The world has become very dynamic and competitive and thus it is evident that monopolies are not good for any society. For instance the society is more often than not failing to benefit from the single player. Decline in consumer surplus, less incentives, higher consumer prices are a common trend in an industry dominated by monopolies. Sadly, the firms in these industries benefit from the market power behind a monopoly since they can obtain more economic profit by having prices at higher possible point. These firms likewise use the economic profits from the monopoly acts to invest in development and research with resources for the company and thus hugely benefit given the diseconomies of sale. On the other hand, Oligopoly’s case is much unique since the industry has few but large firms. In this regard, if they interfere with price setting it may be a great disadvantage of the final consumer. With no competition or just little competition within the market, these few firms may not have the will to expand or improve their production to benefit their consumers. While having little to new competition in the market can be a bad thing it can also be an advantage for them as they can make huge profits. In cases where prices are easily comparable, it forces firms to set their market prices competitively which are beneficial for the consumers. Antitrust investigation normally implies all the inquiry carried out with a view to obtain the involvement of their business in any illegal business act

International trade and labour and environmental standards Essay

International trade and labour and environmental standards - Essay Example Research studies by such organizations as the World Bank show that trade triggers and supports growth of economies producing growing middle class citizens in the countries (Rose, para 1-7). The two (economic growth as well as middle class population) motivate these countries to uphold environmental conservation and management as well as improve labor standards. This paper therefore intends to conduct a qualitative analysis of facts and features in international trade, labor as well as environmental standards as they are in the current day by use of available literature. Literature shows that trade agreements in international trade especially by developed and emerging economies promote economic opportunities within the emerging countries, which alleviate living standards of workers within the countries (Neary, 96). The trade agreements by the developed countries like the US provide opportunities for economic performance for indigenous industries as well as workers. Besides, the negotiations of such countries within the international trade front have been associated with improved labor standards within other countries hence the interrelation between trade Analysts as well as policy makers take a leading role in the investigating and explaining how international trade interacts with environment. For instance, a very recent debate on whether trade should be liberalized triggered the conclusions that liberalization is likely to cause increased industrial emissions whose effects are detrimental to the general environment. This on the other hand set the platform for discussion on whether tightening environmental and trade policies should be encouraged for compensation of such changes as would result from the policy changes. Besides, there has also been a growing interest in linking environmental policy and regulation efforts as well as

Biology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Biology - Essay Example Hence, it is paramount to protect the biodiversity in order to avoid adverse effects on the environment. Biodiversity is an issue of immense concern to me because I love my city and natural environment, and I need to conserve the ecosystems. Kuwait has been experiencing challenges in the ecosystem. Notably, desertification has affected the ability of Kuwait to support and maintain the native fauna and flora. The plant cover has reduced drastically, and accelerated soil erosion is a reality. I believe that the human interference with nature has contributed to desertification and the threat of wildlife extinction in Kuwait. Such undesired effects have disrupted the natural dynamics of the ecosystems. I support any effort that seeks to protect diversity in Kuwait in order to restore the natural environment. In my opinion, it is important for Kuwait to develop and promote sound environmentally friendly strategies to identify the endangered plant and animal species and conserve them. The collection of the plant seeds is an important exercise that can assist in preserving the natural plants and restoring the natural heritage of Kuwait’s

Personal Cultural Identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personal Cultural Identity - Essay Example My grandfather David is a German who served as an officer in the U.S. Army during the Second World War. Two years before the war broke out he was teaching economics at a Southern Germany university when his wife died while giving birth to my Uncle Ferdinand. Before the year was over, he left with my baby uncle for England to take up further studies, and they were at Oxford staying with his English wife's family when the war broke out. Like most Germans, he was looked at with suspicion, but because his wife's family trusted him, he was accepted into English society and soon after was taken in as a volunteer by the British Army and assigned to work with the U.S. Army after D-Day. He must have done a good job, because after the war his Army superior invited him over to work and live in America, and he accepted. My then young uncle followed him over. They eventually settled in Eugene, Oregon where my grandfather married a young and energetic woman from northern Spain who was studying there and, together, they raised a family, a rather big one. Back then, people loved having big families, and my grandparents were no exception. They had ten children and my father was the eighth, born in 1955. My father studied engineering in college and to celebrate his graduation with honors in 1976, he and his friends went to France for a one-month vacation. It was while they were getting drunk in Paris that he met my mom, a French accountant who was also celebrating her new university degree. To cut the long story short, they got married a year later and decided to settle down in a little quiet corner of Eugene, Oregon, a place my mother loved as soon as she saw it. I was born there in 1981, the youngest of three. However, we never stayed in one place for long because my father kept on getting promoted and moved, so we went all over the U.S., but since my father came from a large family, it was not unusual for us to find relatives and friends wherever we went. This helped me and my siblings to learn the art of making friends, and it also made us daring to try new things and go to new places. When the time came for me to go to university, I decided to study in Spain. My brother went to a German university, while my sister studied in France, so I wanted to connect to our roots by going to Spain. For some years, my siblings and I were all studying in Europe at the same time, and we would meet each other anywhere for lunch or dinner. On several occasions, my father would bring my mother over and we would have a great feast. What am I Some weeks ago, I had a long conversation with my Uncle Ferdinand as he visited me from London, where he teaches music (he used to be a concert pianist with an American symphony orchestra) and I asked him this question. I knew what his answer would be: "You are as American as all the Americans are. America is a land of immigrants, and even as I was born in Munich, grew up in Oxford and Eugene, my roots are in America, where your grandfather died and where your father was born. Your grandparents were German and Spanish, your dad American and your mom French, which makes you a perfect American" (Interview, 2007). My siblings and I have always felt this way even though we often entertained slight doubts about what we are. Impact on My Role as Teacher There are many advantages in knowing how to speak four languages (English, Spanish, German, and

Marketing concepts And Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing concepts And Strategies - Essay Example The best way of advertising is through print and broadcast media. 2. In a passage of time we have become the conspirators of reproduction generation by generation. The consumers were attracted by the item and bonded with memories of commercial culture. At present, the marketing strategy for selling product is to lure them for branded products; play in branded spaces and exposing them to TV channel. The marketers and advertising agencies work and trade on psychology of consumers for marketing their product. As the VP of a large retailer of men's suits I would introduce branded products so that all classes of people can visit and shop. 3. Marketers spend and invest lots of money in developing strategies of different methods to attract consumers towards their product and capitalize the opportunities to make or amass money. The marketers conduct research to defend, develop counter measures to meet the market competition. The ability of the youth to remove and neutralize the technique of advertising is snubbed by the other agency so as to increase the sale of their product. In the market, the Internets are counteracted by the appearance of e-commerce web sites. In the present marketing world aggressive marketing is the new mantra. Due to the changing trends and tastes of customers the best possible strategies are to explore new ways of marketing. Advertising, considerably slashing the prices of the commodities, increasing the discount rates, aggressive marketing, etc., are the methods that should be used by Apple to stay in the extremely competitive market. 4. Childhood is a creative, innovative and generative. In the society the child consumers are more than adult consumers. The marketing strategy is to attract children by making publicity of the gaming product through media. The producers and marketers display the products in supermarkets and departmental stores for sale. The best strategy is to have a good impression on parents because they are the persons who decide what to purchase for their children. Business to Consumer (B2C): In B2C e-commerce, business uses the Net for offering their products or services to consumers 24 hours a day from any part of the world. B2C portals are the most visible face of e-commerce. 5. Efficiency of management: The purpose of financial statement analysis is to know that the financial policies adopted by the management are efficient or not. Analysis also helps the management in preparing annuity products. It also helps the management to find out the shortcomings so that remedial measures can be taken to remove these shortcomings. Analysis also helps in taking decisions: a) Whether funds required for the retirement services are provided from internal resources of the business or not. b) How much funds have been raised from external sources. Reference Louis E. Boone & David L. Kurtz. Contemporary Marketing. New York: South-WesternCollege Pub. 2004.

Programming Solution Proposal Essay Example for Free

Programming Solution Proposal Essay Computer programs can help us solve everyday issues that might seem impossible. Household budgeting is an issue that burdens many Americans. Every individual is ultimately responsible for managing his or her finances. Developing a computer program that can help individuals manage their budget will greatly improve their life quality. The program would have to follow the program development cycle model and use the modular approach. Identifying Budget Issues The biggest challenge that many American families are facing after the 2008 recession is managing a monthly budget adequately. The fact is that many families increased their debt by borrowing more than their allocated budget. Americans need to learn to live base on how much they earn. Our first reaction, when in debt, would be to make up excuses as to why we are in that situation. Some of us will even try to blame relatives or credit card companies when faced with excessive debt. It is families, who do not budget properly, that end up losing their homes and vehicles to banks or lenders (msn, 2009). Who is Responsible? The task of managing your budget according to your earnings is a decision and responsibility that is ultimately yours. The first step to take when budgeting is to acknowledge your debt problem and stop finding justifications for it. The problem can be excessively stressful and it is recommended to seek assistance through friends, family, or even better from an organization that guides people through debt reduction. A non-profit organization, such as the National Foundation for Credit Counseling, will probably be the best option. To start getting a handle of the problem, one must establish a number of how much is owed (msn, 2009). Developing a Program Technology, at present day, is an important tool that can be used to our advantage to solve almost any issue. Many families that might be facing budgeting and even foreclosure issues might not be aware that such tools exist. The process of creating a computer program that will help us budget our monthly income can greatly improve our quality of life. Such program must follow the program development cycle and contain the three main components of a computer program; input, process, and output (Venit Drake, 2009). Program Development Cycle The first step of the program development cycle is to analyze the problem. We need to fully understand the problem that needs to be solved. We also need to analyze which information is available to us. The initial information available to us is our monthly net pay, and our monthly economic obligations. We also need to establish our desired output, establishing a budget, and determine how our known information will help us achieve those results. At this point we might also become aware of information that is not included but is necessary in order to identify the problem properly. Such information may include unexpected expenses, depositing money into a savings account, etc. (Venit Drake, 2009). The next step of the cycle is designing a program to solve the problem. The designing step of the program development cycle will yield a flowchart that will outline how the actual program is executed based on the known variables. The flowchart will include a starting point, inputs, assignments, If conditions, loops, outputs, and an ending point. The evaluation of each step of the program development cycle might yield additional subtasks that might need to be added to the original flowchart. This step also involves writing an algorithm in pseudocodes which will instruct the program on what to do. The last two steps of the cycle involve writing the pseudocode statements in program code. The program code will depend on which computer language is chosen. Finally the program needs to be executed to determine if it runs properly. A re-evaluation of the program might be needed if the program does not execute properly (Venit Drake, 2009). The goal of the program is to aid the average household to adequately manage a budget. Modular Approach The modular approach that will be taken to create this budgeting program will ensure the creation of the proper program to solve the issue. The approach will first consider the major tasks that need to be accomplished. A module will be created for each task in the program. The tasks can later be broken down into sub-tasks as deemed necessary by the programmer. These sub-tasks will then be assigned sub-modules. The amount of sub-tasks is determined by the complexity of the problem and how many are needed to solve the problem. The purpose of breaking down tasks is to make the program much easier and simpler. The model that is used to break down tasks is called the top-down design (Venit Drake, 2009). Conclusion Developing a computer program that can help individuals manage their budget will greatly improve their life quality.

Importance Of Time In Distributed Systems

Importance Of Time In Distributed Systems Time is an important and interesting issue in Distributed Systems for several reasons. First, time is a quantity we always want to measure accurately. In order to know at what time of day a particular event occurred at a particular computer, it is necessary to synchronize its clock with an authoritative, external source of time. Second, algorithms that depend upon clock synchronization have been developed for several problems in distribution; these include maintaining the consistency of distributed data, checking the authenticity of a request sent to a server and eliminating the processing of duplicate updates [1] In Centralized systems, there is no need for clock synchronization because, generally, there is only a single clock. A process gets the time by simply issuing a system call to the kernel. When another process after that tries to get the time, it will get a higher time value. Thus, in such systems, there is a clear ordering of events and there is no ambiguity about the times at which these events occur. [4] In Distributed systems, there is no global clock or common memory. Each processor has its own internal clock and its own notion of time. In practice, these clocks can easily drift apart by several seconds per day, accumulating significant errors over time. Also, because different clocks tick at different rates, they may not remain always synchronized although they might be synchronized when they start. This clearly poses serious problems to applications that depend on a synchronized notion of time. Distributed systems are subject to timing uncertainties as certain processes may lack a common notion of real time. Due to an uncertainty in message delay time, absolute process synchronization is known to be impossible for such systems The literature presents issues of timing in distributed systems, physical clocks and their synchronization problems, algorithms for synchronizing physical clocks are presented with their limitations, and also techniques for implementing logical clocks which are used to monitor the order of events without measuring the physical time at which the events occurred The concept of time Let us begin by asking this simple question; does anybody really know what time it is [3] As Lamport notes, the concept of time is fundamental to our way of thinking [7] In fact, real time helps to master many problems of our decentralized real world. Time is also a useful concept when considering possible causality. Consider a person suspected of a crime, if that person has an alibi because he or she was far enough away from the site of the crime at some instant close enough to the time of the crime, then he or she cannot be the culprit. Timing problems Accurate time is important to determining the order in which events occur; [3] this is a basic standard of transactional integrity, system and networkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ wide logging, auditing, troubleshooting and forensics. Having an accurate time source plays a critical role in tracing and debugging problems that occur on different platforms across a network. Events must be correlated with each other regardless of where they were generated. Furthermore, the notion of time (or time ranges) is used in many forms of access control, authentication, and encryption. In some cases, these controls can be bypassed or rendered inoperative if the time source could be manipulated. For example, a payroll function could be tricked into providing access over a weekend when normally it would be restricted to normal business hours. [3] Physical clocks Most computers today keep track of the passage of time with a battery-backed up Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) clock circuit, driven by a quartz resonator. This allows the timekeeping to take place even if the machine is powered off. When on, an operating system will generally program a timer circuit (a Programmable Interval Timer, or PIT, in older Intel architectures and Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller, or APIC, in newer systems.) to generate an interrupt periodically (common times are 60 or 100 times per second). The interrupt service procedure simply adds one to a counter in memory. While the best quartz resonators can achieve an accuracy of one second in 10 years, they are sensitive to changes in temperature and acceleration and their resonating frequency can change as they age. Standard resonators are accurate to 6 parts per million at 31 °C, which corresponds to  ±Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ½ second per day. The problem with maintaining a concept of time is when multiple entities expect each other to have the same idea of what the time is. Two watches hardly ever agree. Computers have the same problem: a quartz crystal on one computer will oscillate at a slightly different frequency than on another computer, causing the clocks to tick at different rates. The phenomenon of clocks ticking at different rates, creating an ever widening gap in perceived time is known as clock drift. The difference between two clocks at any point in time is called clock skew and is due to both clock drift and the possibility that the clocks may have been set differently on different machines. The Figure below illustrates this phenomenon with two clocks, A and B, where clock B runs slightly faster than clock A by approximately two seconds per hour. This is the clock drift of B relative to A. At one point in time (five seconds past five oclock according to As clock), the difference in time between the two clocks is approximately four seconds. This is the clock skew at that particular time. Compensating for drift We can envision clock drift graphically by considering true Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) flowing on the x-axis and the corresponding computers clock reading on the y-axis. A perfectly accurate clock will exhibit a slope of one. A faster clock will create a slope greater than unity while a slower clock will create a slope less than unity. Suppose that we have a means of obtaining the true time. One easy (and frequently adopted) solution is to simply update the system time to the true time. To complicate matters, one constraint that well impose is that its not a good idea to set the clock back. The illusion of time moving backwards can confuse message ordering and software development environments. If a clock is fast, it simply has to be made to run slower until it synchronizes. If a clock is slow, the same method can be applied and the clock can be made to run faster until it synchronizes. The operating system can do this by changing the rate at which it requests interrupts. For example, suppose the system requests an interrupt every 17 milliseconds (pseudo-milliseconds, really the computers idea of what a millisecond is) and the clock runs a bit too slowly. The system can request interrupts at a faster rate, say every 16 or 15 milliseconds, until the clock catches up. This adjustment changes the slope of the system time and is known as a linear compensating Function. After the synchronization period is reached, one can choose to resynchronize periodically and/or keep track of these adjustments and apply them continually to get a better running clock. This is analogous to noticing that your watch loses a minute every two months and making a mental note to adjust the clock by that amount every two months (except the system does it continually). Synchronizing physical clocks With physical clocks, our interest is not in advancing them just to ensure proper message ordering, but to have the system clock keep good time. We looked at methods for adjusting the clock to compensate for skew and drift, but it is essential that we get the time first so that we would know what to adjust. One possibility is to attach a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver to each computer. A GPS receiver will provide time within  ± 1 msec. of UTC time but Unfortunately, they rarely work indoors. Alternatively, if the machine is in the U.S., one can attach a WWV radio receiver to obtain time broadcasts from Texas, Colorado or Washington, DC, giving accuracies of  ± 3-10 msec. depending on the distance from the source. Another option is to obtain a GOES (Geostationary Operational Environment Satellites) receiver, which will provide time within  ± 0.1 msec. of UTC time. For reasons of economy, convenience, and reception, these are not practical solutions for every machine. Most machines will set their time by asking another machine for the time (preferably one with one of the aforementioned time sources). A machine that provides this information is called a time server. Several algorithms have been proposed for synchronizing clocks and they all have the same underlying model of the system Cristians algorithm The simplest algorithm for setting the time would be to simply issue a remote procedure call to a time server and obtain the time. That does not account for the network and processing delay. We can attempt to compensate for this by measuring the time (in local system time) at which the request is sent (T0) and the time at which the response is received (T1). Our best guess at the network delay in each direction is to assume that the delays to and from are symmetric (we have no reason to believe otherwise). The estimated overhead due to the network delay is then (T1- T0)/2. The new time can be set to the time returned by the server plus the time that elapsed since the server generated the timestamp: Suppose that we know the smallest time interval that it could take for a message to be sent between a client and server (either direction). Lets call this time Tmin. This is the time when the network and CPUs are completely unloaded. Knowing this value allows us to place bounds on the accuracy of the result obtained from the server. If we sent a request to the server at time T0, then the earliest time stamp that the server could generate the timestamp is T0 + Tmin. The latest time that the server could generate the timestamp is T1 Tmin, where we assume it took only the minimum time, Tmin, to get the response. The range of these times is: T1 T0 2Tmin, so the accuracy of the result is: Errors are cumulative. If machine A synchronizes from a server B and gets an accuracy of  ±5 msec but server B in turn got its time from server C with an accuracy of  ±7 msec, the net accuracy at machine A is  ±(5+7), or  ±12 msec. Several time requests may be issued consecutively in the hope that one of the requests may be delivered faster than the others (e.g., it may be submitted during a time window when network activity is minimal). This can achieve improved accuracy. Cristians algorithm suffers from the problem that afflicts all single-server algorithms: the server might fail and clock synchronization will be unavailable. It is also subject to malicious interference. Berkeley algorithm The Berkeley algorithm, developed by Gusella and Zatti in 1989 [8], is form of an internal synchronization that does not assume that any machine has an accurate time source with which to synchronize. Instead, it opts for obtaining an average time from the participating computers and synchronizing all machines to that average. The machines involved in the synchronization each run a time dà ¦mon process that is responsible for implementing the protocol. One of these machines is elected (or designated) to be the master. The others are slaves. The server polls each machine periodically, asking it for the time. The time at each machine may be estimated by using Cristians method to account for network delays. When all the results are in, the master computes the average time (including its own time in the calculation). The hope is that the average cancels out the individual clocks tendencies to run fast or slow. Instead of sending the updated time back to the slaves, which would introduce further uncertainty due to network delays, it sends each machine the offset by which its clock needs adjustment. The operation of this algorithm is illustrated in the Figure below. Three machines have times of 3:00, 3:25, and 2:50. The machine with the time of 3:00 is the server (master). It sends out a synchronization query to the other machines in the group. Each of these machines sends a timestamp as a response to the query. The server now averages the three timestamps: the two it received and its own, computing (3:00+3:25+2:50)/3 = 3:05. Now it sends an offset to each machine so that the machines time will be synchronized to the average once the offset is applied. The machine with a time of 3:25 gets sent an offset of -0:20 and the machine with a time of 2:50 gets an offset of +0:15. The server has to adjust its own time by +0:05. The algorithm also has provisions to ignore readings from clocks whose skew is too great. The master may compute a fault-tolerant average averaging values from machines whose clocks have not drifted by more than a certain amount. If the master machine fails, any other slave could be elected to take over Logical clocks Lets again consider cases that involve assigning sequence numbers (timestamps) to events upon which all cooperating processes can agree. What matters in these cases is not the time of day at which the event occurred but that all processes can agree on the order in which related events occur. Our interest is in getting event sequence numbers that make sense system-wide. If we can do this across all events in the system, we have something called total ordering: every event is assigned a unique timestamp (number), every such timestamp is unique. However, we dont always need total ordering. If processes do not interact then we dont care when their events occur. If we only care about assigning timestamps to related (causal) events then we have something known as partial ordering. Leslie Lamport [7] developed a happened before notation to express the relationship between events: aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b means that a happened before b. If a represents the timestamp of a message sent and b is the timestamp of that message being received, then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b must be true; a message cannot be received before it is sent. This relationship is transitive. If aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b and bà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢c then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢c. If a and b are events that take place in the same process the aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b is true if a occurs before b. The importance of measuring logical time is in assigning a time value to each event such that everyone will agree on the final order of events. That is, if aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b then clock (a) < clock (b) since the clock (our timestamp generator) must never run backwards. If a and b occur on different Processes that do not exchange messages (even through third parties) then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b is not true, these events are said to be concurrent: there is no way that a could have influenced b. Each event is assigned a timestamp by its respective process. The process simply maintains a global counter that is incremented before each event gets a timestamp. If we examine the timestamps from our global perspective, we can observe a number of peculiarities. Event g, the event representing the receipt of the message sent by event a, has the exact same timestamp as event a when it clearly had to take place after event a. Event e has an earlier time stamp (1) than the event that sent the message (b, with a timestamp of 2). Lamports algorithm Lamport [7] proposed an algorithm that forces the resequencing of timestamps to ensure that the happened before relationship is properly depicted for events related to sending and receiving messages. It works as follows: Each process has a clock, which can be a simple counter that is incremented for each event. The sending of a message is an event and each message carries with it a timestamp obtained from the current value of the clock at that process (sequence number). The arrival of a message at a process is also an event will also receive a timestamp by the receiving process, of course. The process clock is incremented prior to time stamping the event, as it would be for any other event. If the clock value is less than the timestamp in the received message, the systems clock is adjusted to the (messages timestamp + 1). Otherwise nothing is done. The event is now time stamped. If we apply this algorithm to the same sequence of messages, we can see that proper message ordering among causally related events is now preserved. Note that between every two events, the clock must tick at least once. [4] Lamports algorithm [7] allows us to maintain proper time ordering among causally- related events. In summary, Lamports algorithm requires a monotonically increasing software counter for a clock that has to be incremented at least when events that need to be time stamped take place. These events will have the clock value, or Lamport timestamp, associated with them. For any two events, where aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b, L (a) < L (b) where L(x) represents the Lamport timestamp for event x. Lamport timestamps [7] assure us that if there is a causal relationship between two events, then the earlier event will have a smaller time stamp than the later event. Causality is achieved by successive events on one process or by the sending and receipt of messages on different processes. As defined by the happened-before relationship, causality is transitive. For instance, events a and f are causally related in the figure above (through the sequence a, b, e, f). Implementing Logical clocks To implement logical clocks, [11] each process p, maintains data structures that give it the following two capabilities: A logical clock, denoted by C, that helps P, measure its own progress; and A global logical clock denoted by gC, that represents Ps local view of the global logical time. A protocol is presented to update the data structures; the protocol ensures that a processs logical clock and its view of the global time are consistent. The protocol consists of the following two rules: R1. maintains how a process updates the local logical clock when it executes an Event, whether send or receive R2. maintains how a process updates its global logical clock to update its view of the Global time. It dictates what information about the logical time a process Piggybacks in a message and how the receiving process uses this information to Update its view of the global time A distributed system consisting of logical clocks differ in their representation of logical time and in the protocol for updating logical clocks. However, all systems consisting of logical clocks implements some form of R1 and R2 and thereby achieving the fundamental monotonicity property associated with events and casualty Total ordering of events Note that it is very possible for multiple non-causal (concurrent) events to share identical Lamport timestamps (e.g., c, e, and h in the Figure above). This may cause confusion if multiple processes need to make a decision based on the timestamps of two events. The selection of a specific event may not matter if the events are concurrent but we want all the processes to be able to make the same decision. This is difficult if the timestamps are identical. Fortunately, theres an easy remedy. We can create a total order on events by further qualifying them with identities of processes. We define a global logical timestamp (Ti,i) where Ti represents the local Lamport timestamp and i represents the process ID (in some globally unique way: for example, a concatenation of host address and process ID). We are then able to globally compare these timestamps and conclude that There is no physical significance to the order since process identifiers can be arbitrary and do not relate to event ordering but the ability to ensure that no two Lamport timestamps are the same globally is helpful in algorithms that need to compare these timestamps. In real life, depending on the application, one may use a combination of thread ID, process ID, and IP address as a qualifier to the timestamp. Vector clocks If two events are causally related and event e happened before event e then we know that L (e) < L (e). However, the converse is not necessarily true. With Lamports algorithm, if L (e) < L (e) we cannot conclude that eà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢e. Hence, if we look at Lamport timestamps, we cannot conclude which pairs of events are causally related and which are not. One solution that has been proposed to deal with this problem is the concept of vector clocks (proposed by Mattern in 1989 and Fidge in 1991) [9, 10]. A vector clock in a system of N processes is a vector of N integers. Each process maintains its own vector clock (Vi for a process Pi) to timestamp local events. Like Lamport timestamps, vector timestamps (the vector of N integers) are sent with each message. The rules for using vector clocks are: The vector is initialized to 0 at all processes: Vi[j] = 0 for i,j = 1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N Before a process Pi timestamps an event, it increments its element of the vector in its local vector: Vi[i] = Vi[i]+1 A message is sent from process Pi with Vi attached to the message. When a process Pj receives a vector timestamp t, it compares the two vectors element by element, setting its local vector clock to the higher of the two values: Vj[i] = max(Vj[i], t[i]) for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N We compare two vector timestamps by defining: V = V iff V[j] = V'[j] for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N V à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ V iff V[j] à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ V'[j] for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N For any two events e, e, if eà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢e then V(e) < V(e). This is the same as we get from Lamports algorithm. With vector clocks, we now have the additional knowledge that if V(e)

Personal Growth in Great Expectations :: Free Great Expectations Essays

Personal Growth in Great Expectations The coming of age novel Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens showed how a young simple boy grew into a gentleman, and slowly discovered that no matter what happened in his life it couldn't change who he was on the inside. His attitude and personality fluctuated throughout the three main stages of his life. The first line of the book showed Pip's simplicity of thought by the way he described his nickname: "My father's family name being Pirrip, and my Christian name Philip, my infant tongue could make of both names nothing longer or more explicit than Pip." (Pg.3) His personality continued in the same manner until he met the stunning Estella and disturbed Miss Havisham. That was the point when his ignorance turned into envy, for all that his life was lacking living with his sister and Joe. He realized how much his family was different from that of the rich and wanted nothing more than to be accepted as a gentleman. The night he came home from Estella's he couldn't help but think of how common Estella would think his family was: "Estella would consider Joe, a mere blacksmith: how think his boots, and how coarse his hands. I thought how Joe and my sister were there sitting In the kitchen and I had come up to bed from the kitchen, and how Miss Havisham and Estella never sat in a kitchen, but were far above the level of such common doings." (Pg.89) After thinking of what the higher class would think of his family his own opinion of the Gargery's also shifted. He began to treat them with disrespect and acted as though he were better than them, even Joe, the one who had been his closest friend. When Jaggers announced that there was an unknown person who wanted to send Pip to London to become a gentleman, Pip was overwhelmed with excitement and couldn't believe his dream had come true. He felt that this gave him the opportunity to become the man of Estella's dreams, which was all he could think about. Pip lived the high life in London; he hired a servant and spends more money than he was supposed to. Personal Growth in Great Expectations :: Free Great Expectations Essays Personal Growth in Great Expectations The coming of age novel Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens showed how a young simple boy grew into a gentleman, and slowly discovered that no matter what happened in his life it couldn't change who he was on the inside. His attitude and personality fluctuated throughout the three main stages of his life. The first line of the book showed Pip's simplicity of thought by the way he described his nickname: "My father's family name being Pirrip, and my Christian name Philip, my infant tongue could make of both names nothing longer or more explicit than Pip." (Pg.3) His personality continued in the same manner until he met the stunning Estella and disturbed Miss Havisham. That was the point when his ignorance turned into envy, for all that his life was lacking living with his sister and Joe. He realized how much his family was different from that of the rich and wanted nothing more than to be accepted as a gentleman. The night he came home from Estella's he couldn't help but think of how common Estella would think his family was: "Estella would consider Joe, a mere blacksmith: how think his boots, and how coarse his hands. I thought how Joe and my sister were there sitting In the kitchen and I had come up to bed from the kitchen, and how Miss Havisham and Estella never sat in a kitchen, but were far above the level of such common doings." (Pg.89) After thinking of what the higher class would think of his family his own opinion of the Gargery's also shifted. He began to treat them with disrespect and acted as though he were better than them, even Joe, the one who had been his closest friend. When Jaggers announced that there was an unknown person who wanted to send Pip to London to become a gentleman, Pip was overwhelmed with excitement and couldn't believe his dream had come true. He felt that this gave him the opportunity to become the man of Estella's dreams, which was all he could think about. Pip lived the high life in London; he hired a servant and spends more money than he was supposed to.

Easter Island :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stony sentry’s, carved years ago by Polynesian craftsmen, gaze over one of the most remote places in the world. With their land enlarged by overuse, islanders now draw on a revival of their culture to attract visitors. I intend to tell about this small island off the coast of Chile named Easter Island.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Easter Island, submerged volcanic mountain range in the eastern Pacific Ocean, is located 500 miles South of the Tropic of Capricorn, and 2,200 miles West of Chile. This area is located were it is swept by strong trade winds. Because of his, the island remains warm through out the year. As you know, Easter Island is small. To be exact it has an area of 64 square miles about the size of Washington D.C. Easter Island’s population as grown a lot since diseases spread to most of the island in1877. Some of the remaining people left for South America, and the island was left 110 people. The population grew throughout the years in 1955 it was 990, in 1980 it was 1,842 and in 1989 it was 2,095.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As many people have traditions, at parties and other celebrations, Easter Island has its own. They paint their bodies, the chant, they dance and the sing songs of their forbears. Each September, flocks of sooty terns come to nest on tiny islets about a mile off the shore. Since ancient times, there have been ceremonies to celebrate the birds’ arrival and to choose the birdman. The birdman competition is where each clan selected a representative to swim to the islets where the birds nested. They are to find and egg and swim back the first one back with an unbroken egg becomes the birdman. Another competition is during Tapati Rapa Nui - Rapa Nui is where guys race with heavy loads on their backs to try to win points for a girl, out of many girls, who want to be crowned festival queen. Some islanders practice the custom of elongating their earlobes. This was done by piercing the ear and gradually enlarging the hole.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today most experts believe that Easter Island was first settled by Polynesians looking for a new homeland. About 1680 A.D, the quality of life on the island began to decrease. At this time, clan rivals erupted in a bloody battle between long ears and shorts ears. This destruction of the islands natural resource undoubtedly contributed to its decline.

False Memory Essay -- distorted memory, fabricated recollections

Memory is one of the most critical parts of cognition. It is important because it is involved in almost every aspect of cognition including problem solving, decision making, attention, and perception. Because of this importance, people rely on one’s memory to make important decisions. The value of one’s memory in this society is so high that it is used as evidence to either save one’s life or kill one’s life during murder trials. But as many of the cognitive psychologists know, human’s memory can cause many errors. One of these errors is false memory which is either remembering events that never happened or remembering events differently from the actual event. This finding of false memory raised big interests among psychologists and general public and many researches were done in order to find more about the false memory. The constructive approach to memory, which states that memory is constructed by person based on what really happened in addition to person’s other knowledge, experiences, and expectations, supports the idea of false memory. Just like what constructive approach to memory states, the false memory can be created by person’s knowledge, common biases, and suggestions. The present study was done in order to demonstrate one methodology that biases people to create and recall false memories. The present study is based on Deese’s experiment in 1959 and also on Roediger and McDermott’s experiment in 1995. The participants will be presented with sequence of words visually, and then they would have to classify a set of words as either in the sequence or not in the sequence. Our hypothesis is that people will create false memories and recall distractor words that are related to the sequence of words presented significantly m... ...re I think if the participants are not aware of it, the false recall rate will increase. And if there are more words presented, my assume is that it will increase the false recall rate. We can imply this finding of false memory in many ways in our lives. We all should note that our memory cannot be trusted 100% and we should not solely rely on our memory when it comes to making critical decisions. Just like the murder trial example used in earlier, when it comes to eye witnessing, the judge should take possible false memory into account when making the final decisions and try to obtain objective evidence along with the memory of the witness. Works Cited Roediger, H. L. III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 803-814

Classroom Management Essay

Introduction This paper will present the importance of setting standards within the classroom. Transitioning is one the most important part of planning. Without a classroom management students will not understand the role that they play within the classroom community. I believe the one of the most important details in the development of lesson planning is implementing effective transitioning to minimize behavior problems. Students need to in a positive and encouraging environment for them to succeed and setting high expectations for them. Establishment of rules The purpose of setting classroom rules is to create a safe yet challenging environment. I believe that educators should strive daily to meet the needs of students spiritually, socially and mentally. The theoretical foundation applied by an educator is like a roadmap that enables the students to arrive at their intended educational expectations. An educator’s theoretical foundation should be precise, integrated and complete. Such a model should consider each aspect of students being. When God created man, He made man in His own image. Man is a spiritual being, who possesses a soul that lives inside a body. And yes, having an established prevention class makes it all possible. Gaining students trust and respect is a very critical first step in creatinine a positive learning environment. If I can have respect for my students as well as having them respecting each other, I believe this leads to a safe environment where learning can take place. I believe that students should be a part of creating the classroom rules because they will be more likely to comply. By creating the rules they will have a personal and moral connection. In kindergarten the students learned the school rules and of course they would have to be implemented throughout their school career as a student. The first grade daily rules will be posted at the appropriate eye level so that students have easy access to the rules. The rules will be posted and consistently followed throughout the school year. I will discuss the rules, consequences, and rewards with the class daily. It is imperative that I set the expectations of the classroom immediately. This will be ongoing practice throughout the school year. I will also encourage the parents to go over the classroom expectations at home. As we begin to create the classroom rules, I will model/discuss with the students what a good classroom rule looks like. For example creating mini lesson that include possible scenario’s along with consequences as a result of the unwarranted behaviors. This way they understand what is expected of them when creating the rules. I will explain to the students that I will develop the first five of the six classroom rules. I will write all the rules of the board and in a student centered discussion ask why they think this rule is important. The first rule is to follow directions the first time that they are given. Second, listen when others are talking at all times. Third, raise your hand and wait to be called on before responding. Fourth, work quietly and do not disturb others. Fifth, you must keep our hands to yourself at all times. Each day student’s will have a chance to earn â€Å"smile sticks. † Smile sticks can easily be earned whenever a student is displaying appropriate behavior by: following directions, walking quietly in the hallway, helping others, etc. At the end of each week, smile sticks are counted and each student with 8 or more sticks will get a chance to pull from the treasure chest. Parents will be notified daily of positive and negative experiences. Daily Routine On the second day of school will go over the rules discussed on the first day and revisit the class tour. On this day, I will go over the morning routine that is displayed daily within the classroom. The students will be asked to come in and immediately select their breakfast and begin to eat. The students as well as parents will receive information on the time breakfast is served, and the amount of time provided to students. Next, I will discuss and model the appropriate items to bring into the classroom from the lockers located within the classrooms. I will next discuss the importance of attendance and being tardy to school. Then I will discuss/model and teach appropriate procedures for sharpening pencils, restroom, and turning in assignments. Parents will receive a welcome letter that tells about me. The parents’ will also receive a school handbook and classroom expectations. Setting daily routines is important for all grade level students but especially lower L students. On the third day we will get to know each other and I will provide an assignment â€Å"getting to know me† the students will take this assignment home for homework. This sheet will allow them to go home and complete with their parents and come to school ready to share. I will store the assignment within their file so that I can always use it as a reference guide. The classroom tour Each day within the first week of school it is important that students get comfortable with their new environment. We will take a classroom tour and learn where all resources and materials are within the classroom. Once we have gone through a tour and I explained as well the demographics of things, we will do a quick assessment. I will choose a student by pulling Popsicle sticks randomly. An example of this assessment is to simply ask questions. For example: â€Å"If I need to find my writing journal, where would I go to retain it? † This exercise would give students moving about within the classroom and getting comfortable and familiar with the placement of various tools and resources. Transitions Students often find it difficult to transitions between assignments and changes class periods. I have witnessed difficulties at all age levels and it is a task that must be made smooth by all teachers. According to Kellough & Jarolimek, smooth transitions can be facilitated by implementing structured activities that help students make these transitions. Transitions are less trouble when teachers plan them carefully during their preactive phase of instruction and write them into their lesson plan. (Kellough & Jarolimek, 2013) A significant stumbling block to the flow of instruction is in attention to transitions between activities, lessons, subjects, or class periods. It is here that teachers are likely to feel that they are less effective in maintaining the flow of instruction. Effective transitions are structured to move students from one activity to another, both physically and cognitively. The goal of smooth transitions is to ensure that all students have the materials and mind-sets they need for a new activity The start of the day students will begin their bell work assignment on a daily basis. Once bell-work is completed then students will begin journal writing based on a selected topic. During transition periods the student will be able to earn table points. The table with the most points at the end of the week have to opportunity to pick a prize from the treasure box. The transition procedure will be explained throughout the school year. Once we complete the lesson the students have two minutes to prepare for the table point game. Preparation includes putting away their current supplies and sitting as an effective leader and finally pause. The table that is prepared in this manner first, gets an opportunity to answer the first question in the point game. With this activity I am able to assess the students’ knowledge of the prior lesson as well engage them in a fun activity. Using transitions as a tool to help maintain the flow of instruction will ensure meaning instruction. During the transition for lunch, I will set clear and concise directions through-out our daily interactions. Twenty minutes before lunch the students will wrap up their math lesson and collect reading material from their baskets (DEAR). Students will begin to line up once their table is called and will proceed to the lunchroom. Conclusion Today most classrooms suffer do to a lack of effective planning in the area of classroom management. A classroom prevention plan is imperative to having a successful year and students reaching the goals set forth by educators. I believe that if students are a part of creating the classroom rules, they will be less likely to fall short of following the rules. On the first day of school first graders are for of energy, nervous and anxious of what’s to come ahead. Parents are standing in the door way afraid to say goodbye but excited for the journey that their first grader is about to embark on. Establishing a structured environment in the beginning and allowing the parent and students to have access to clear rules and expectation is the recipe for a successful school year! References Van Brummelen, H. (2009). Walking with God in the Classroom: Christian Approaches to Teaching and Learning. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design Publications. Kellough, R. D. , & Jarolimek J. (2005). Teaching and learning K-8: a guide to methods and resources (9th ed. ). New York: Macmillan.

Learning and behavior

1. Define classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Identify the basic procedures of both types of conditioning. Identify and discuss the similarities and differences between the two types.  Traditionally, theories of conditioning have come to mean that learning takes place when two or more events are associated because they occur together. Scientific references to classical conditioning are commonly associated with Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) as he was the first person to discuss issues related to classical conditioning with others in the scientific community.   Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which two stimulus events are associated.   Typically, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally produces an unconditioned response (UR).   The result is that the conditioned stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a new response (the conditioned response, or CR) that is similar in form to the unconditioned response. On the other hand, Skinner (1953) developed the method of conditioning through what has been termed operant or instrumental conditioning. Skinner’s version of instrumental conditioning, called operant conditioning, is a technologically based model that has generated a great deal of research.  Ã‚   Operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior emitted by the learner which may be reinforced by its consequence.   In operant conditioning, whether a response occurs in the future depends upon the nature of the contingency.   If a response makes life better for the individual, it will likely occur in the future.   If it makes life worse, it will likely not occur again in the future.   Thus, operant conditioning makes use of reinforcements. The basic theory of both conditioning is behaviorism, which was formulated by the American behaviorists John B. Watson.   This theory has been described as an evolutionary, psychological doctrine developed to support the evolutionistic theories of knowledge.   It holds that all man’s behavior, mental states and processes have a purely physiological origin and function consisting of neurological, glandular, and other bodily responses to sensory stimuli; and that under proper stimulation can be appropriately conditioned to produce any desired response. Both classical and operant conditionings involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.  Ã‚   Yet their difference is straightforward: Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior- reflexive behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.   Operant conditioning on the other hand, involves voluntary (nonreflexive) action, called operant behavior because the act operates on the environment to produce rewarding or pushing stimuli. 2. Identify two real-life experiences in which learning principles can apply. Discuss each experience and the principles of learning that are applicable. Be sure to fully explain each of the learning concepts that apply to these two experiences. Identify ways in which learning in the two experiences can be inhibited and improved. Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning apply to human health and well-being.   For example, former crack cocaine apply often feel a craving when they again encounter cues (people, places) associated with previous highs.   Thus, drug addicts are advised to steer clear of settings associated with the euphorbia of previous drug use.   Classical conditioning even works upon the body’s disease-fighting system.   When, say, a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response. Everyday applications of operant conditioning are the experiments comparing computer-assisted instruction (CAI) to traditional classroom instruction suggest that, for some drill and practice tasks, the computer can indeed be more effective.  Ã‚   According to Skinner, â€Å"Good instruction demands two things,† he said.   â€Å"Students must be told immediately whether what they do is right or wrong and, when right, they must be directed to the step to be taken.† References Bolles R. C. (1989). Learning theory (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Bower G. H., & Hilgard E. R. (1981). Theories of learning (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Domjan M. (1998). The principles of learning and behavior (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

American vs Hatian Revolution

American vs. Haitian Revolution While the revolutions in colonial America and Haiti had much compatibility, they were also unique in their own ways. In both revolutions, the rebels revolted against a foreign superpower that was in a weakened economic state in order to gain economic and social freedom. However, the Haiti revolution stressed freedom for everybody, including slaves, unlike the American Revolution that basically focused on the needs of the middle class. The revolutions in both of these countries revolutions would have been unsuccessful if it were not for the crippling problems faced by both opposing superpowers. The success of the Haitian revolution was due in no small part to the political turmoil brought about by the French revolution. This weakened the ability of the colonial administrators in Haiti to maintain order and caused the authority of colonial officials to no longer be clear; even the very legitimacy of slavery was even being challenged in France. The turmoil in France and Haiti paved the way for a struggle between the elite plantation owners and the free black slave owners. This fighting in turn gave the slaves, under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, the unheard of opportunity to revolt against their owners and emancipates them from a brutal system of bondage (Corbet). The revolution in the Americans was against its mother country, Great Britain, and unlike Haiti, the British army was in full force when war broke. There were, however, economic weaknesses that led to the inevitable revolution against Britain. Britain was burdened by debts from the French and Indian War, and therefore taxed the colonies substantially to make up for this. The ideologies of the revolutions in both Haiti and America were very similar. In America, philosophers such as Thomas Paine and John Locke preached social and economic freedom. Thomas Paine writes, â€Å"And he hath†¦

History of international systems Essay

On 5 October 1954 representatives of the United States, Britain, Italy, and Yugoslavia signed Trieste settlement in London. According to its terms military government was to stop in the two zones of the FTT, and Italy and Yugoslavia would presume governing authority on their respective sides of the new frontier. The agreement was approved promptly by the governments concerned and came into effect a few weeks later. Captivatingly, the Soviet Union accepted the Trieste settlement without dissent. The American embassy in Moscow accredited this reaction to the Kremlin’s â€Å"wish not to take sides in [the] matter or endanger its current efforts to regularize relations with Yugosalvia.† The issue also no longer held worth as a source of anti-Western propaganda once an Italo-Yugoslav agreement had been protected. As there were no other potential objectors of any implication, realization of the agreement proceeded smoothly. Though the departure of the Anglo-American garrison on 26 October 1954 ended almost a decade of direct United States contribution in Trieste. For various reasons, including bad weather and rumors of a plot to eliminate General Winterton, the formal ceremony to hand over authority from AMG to the Italians did not take place as planned. Winterton did, however, issue a public declaration on the morning of 26 October declaring that â€Å"the Allied Military government of the British and United States Zone of the Free Territory of Trieste is hereby finished.† In the afternoon thousands of Triestines crowded into Piazza Unità   in pouring rain and a howling bora (the notorious Triestine gale) to see the Italian tricolor once again rose over their city. As far as American policymakers were concerned, the Trieste disagreement had been decisively resolved. In terms of international law the settlement was in fact â€Å"provisional† in that a permanent, formal taking apart the FTT would have forced revision of the Italian peace treaty — an act needing the consent of all the signatory nations to that document. As a real solution, however, the London agreement was final as both the Italian and Yugoslav governments renowned it as a practical — if not ideal — cooperate and they wanted it to endure. The two Western powers helped make certain the effective decisiveness of the memorandum of understanding by making obvious they would support neither Italian nor Yugoslav claims to the territory now in the other’s sovereignty (Conrad Allison Alan. 1956). In the wake of a brief diplomatic erupt of the dispute in 1974, Italy and Yugoslavia ultimately decided to celebrate the provisional solution by concluding the alleged Osimo accords of 10 November 1975. These agreements meant that Italy given up its claims to Zone B while Yugoslavia officially recognized that Trieste was Italian territory. There were also prerequisites for protection of national minorities and for local economic collaboration between Italy and Yugoslavia. The two governments accordingly advised the United Nations Security Council, the United States and Great Britain that â€Å"the 1954 London Memorandum which recognized the situation prior to the present agreement is now void.† After more than two decades the â€Å"provisional† de facto settlement which had been so cautiously engineered in 1954 had lastly given rise to a permanent de jure elucidation of the Italo-Yugoslav boundary dispute. It is extremely unlikely that the Trieste question will be reopened in the predictable future. Though, throughout its history Trieste has shared the fortunes of a larger area known as the Julian Region, which has been of long-standing meaning in European political geography. For two thousand years this area at the head of the Adriatic was a strategic thoroughfare or frontier zone where the clash of competitor expansionist forces caused numerous changes in sovereignty. Since the nineteenth century it has also been the setting for a conflict between opposing national and political ideologies which would close in the struggle for Trieste and close by territories after World War II. One significance of these rivalries and shifting sovereignties has been that the area in question — now alienated between Italy and Yugoslavia — is difficult to define. Italians came to call this region Venezia Giulia (Julian Venetia), while Croats and Slovenes adopted the term Julijska Krajina (the Julian March) to portray an almost equivalent territory. In English, the area became known as the Julian Region. Physically, the Julian Region comprises a natural doorway between the Italian plain of the Po Valley and the Danubian Basin, in large part as of the excellent mountain passes found at the meeting point of the Julian Alps and the Dinaric Range. Its shores mark the point where the Adriatic reaches on the way to the landlocked states of Central Europe, and the Gulfs of Trieste and Fiume (Rijeka) on the two sides of the Istrian peninsula represent the most suitable northern outlets to that sea. In effect, the area is a natural crossroads between the Italian peninsula, the Balkans, and Central Europe. The strategic and economic allegations of this geographical setting prompted frequent conflict amongst nearby states for its control. The character of the Julian Region as a â€Å"zone of strain† was further resistant by the fact that it was one of the few points of direct contact between all three of Europe’s major ethnic groupings: Latins, Slavs, and Germans. It is barely surprising that all through history this area has been directly affected by the broader power struggles in the lands around it. The strategic and economic implication of the Julian Region was obvious as early as Roman times. After conquering the Illyro-Celtic peoples who initially inhabited this area, the Romans used the Julian Region as a major military and commercial thoroughfare. While the Roman Empire falls apart the area became a chronic battlefield and an open corridor into Italy for successive waves of invaders: Byzantines in 394; Goths in 400; Huns in 454; Ostrogoths in 488; and Lombards and Avars in 568 (Heim Keith Merle, 1973). By 811 the whole Julian Region had been integrated into the Carolingian Empire but was soon broken up into diverse feudal holdings whose rulers continuously intrigued against each other. After the tenth century the region became the focal point of a broader rivalry between the determined Venetian Republic and the rising Habsburg Empire. The two powers clashed continually in the area until the eighteenth century, when the Habsburgs finally dislodged the Venetians from their last footholds on the western Istrian coast. Excepting a brief break under French rule throughout the Napoleonic era, the Julian Region remained under Habsburg control until the First World War. In case of Yugoslavia, A secret British initiative in early 1941 provoked the first broader international contemplation of postwar revision of the Italo-Yagoslav boundary. At a time when Britain’s wartime situation was at its lowest ebb, Prime Minister Winston Churchill became persuaded that Hitler was preparing an advance into the Balkans. The British began considering diverse expedients to harden local resistance to German penetration, hoping particularly to persuade the Yugoslavs and Turks to enter the war. In the case of Yugoslavia, one measure was to promise postwar territorial compensations in the Julian Region. In January 1941 the Yugoslav minister in Moscow, Milan Gavrilović, suggested that â€Å"it might assist the Yugoslav government to strengthen their own position, and through them that of their neighbors against the Germans,† if Britain were to hold up Yugoslav claims in the Julian Region. Officials in the British Foreign Office noted that the proposal spanked of â€Å"bribery† and was reminiscent of the 1915 Pact of London but, in order â€Å"to be armed at all points,† they requested Arnold Toynbee’s Foreign Research and Press Service to study the Yugoslav case for frontier rectifications. A report was appropriately produced in early February concluding that Yugoslavia had sound claims on racial grounds to most of Istria and the Italian islands off Dalmatia, but not to the cities of Trieste, Gorizia (Gorica), Rijeka, and Zadar (Zara). The Foreign Office only desired cabinet approval â€Å"to hold out this bait to the Yugoslavs.† But the British war cabinet showed little interest while the subject was raised, and there the matter might have rested. Only days later the Yugoslav stance became more vital when the war cabinet decided on 24 February to send British forces to Greece. The Foreign Office now recommended that, in spite of the British policy of not discussing territorial changes during the war, â€Å"the verdict of the Yugoslav Government at the present juncture is of such importance that it would be valuable to disregard this rule on this occasion if by doing so we could persuade Yugoslavia to mediate forcibly on behalf of Greece† (Lees Lorraine Mary, 1976).   The cabinet concurred. At the time Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden was meeting with the Yugoslav government. The cabinet informed him that if he thought it â€Å"necessary or useful† he could indicate that â€Å"his Majesty’s Government are studying with consideration the case for revisions of the Italo-Yugoslav frontier which they are disposed to think could be recognized and advocated by them at the Peace Conference.† Notwithstanding the importance placed on Yugoslav support, the cabinet specified that British policy on the matter must not move beyond this vague formula, which did not entrust Britain to a precise frontier line. British representatives in fact mentioned the territorial issue to the Yugoslavs, but the entire question became irrelevant in April while Italy and Germany invaded Yugoslavia (Kay Robin., 1967). Though inconclusive, the British initiative initiated the pattern according to which Allied policy on the Italo-Yugoslav boundary issue would open out throughout the war. The British had intentionally limited themselves to a vague proposal for approving consideration of Yugoslav claims in the Julian Region and were cautious not to suggest a specific location for an ethnic state line. While eager to tack somewhat, they did not believe the issue justified a major deviation from the policy of not committing themselves on postwar boundaries. In 1941 British interest in Italo-Yugoslav frontier rectifications was based on immediate military expediency. It was of a piece with historian Elisabeth Barker’s general account of British wartime policies in southeastern Europe as â€Å"a story of last-minute inventiveness and the undertaking of commitments without the resources to fulfill them. Policies, if that is the right word for them, were mainly dictated by negative outside factors.† (Black Gregory Dale, 1973) Insofar as Allied policies impinged on the Italo-Yugoslav fight for the Julian Region during World War II, their influence would usually remain indirect, a reverberation of broader military and political ideas of the different Allied nations. This early British incursion into the boundary dispute also prefigured later Anglo-American disagreements on military and political goals in southeastern Europe. Rumors of â€Å"secret agreements† on the Julian Region prompted concern amongst American policymakers, who were supporting an even more accurate policy of no political or territorial settlements throughout the war — partly because of experiences during World War I with secret accords such as the Pact of London. In July 1941 President Franklin D. Roosevelt queried Churchill about â€Å"the stupid story that you promised Trieste to Yugoslavia.† Recalling that in 1919 there were severe problems â€Å"over actual and alleged promises to the Italians and others,† Roosevelt asked Churchill to think stating publicly â€Å"that no post-war peace commitments as to territories, populations or economies have been given.† (Modisett Lawrence, 1981). At the Atlantic Charter discussions in August, Sir Alexander Cadogan, the British permanent in secretary of state for foreign affairs, assured Sumner Welles, the American under secretary of state, that Britain had made no such obligations, with the possible exception of an oral declaration to the Yugoslav government that at war’s end â€Å"the subject of jurisdiction over Istria was a matter which might well come up for reassessment!† Cadogan added that this statement noticeably did not constitute â€Å"a firm commitment† and that Trieste or Gorizia had not been mentioned. â€Å"Heartened† by this assurance, Welles underlined that the United States wished to evade repeating the problems caused in World War I while secret accords concerning Great Britain were disclosed. The British did not officially disavow secret treaties but Washington’s distress about their territorial agreements, which had been sparked by the â€Å"secret agreements† with Yugoslavia, was somewhat allayed by the signature on 14 August 1941 of the Atlantic Charter. The first two points of that document affirmed that neither Great Britain nor the United States sought â€Å"aggrandizement, territorial or other† and that both countries wished â€Å"to see no territorial changes that do not pact with the generously expressed wishes of the peoples concerned.† (Samuel Rosenman, 314). Despite this assertion of Anglo-American unity, the chance appearance of the Julian issue had already evinced differences in the two nations’ fidelity to a method of no wartime agreements on politico territorial questions. British interests in southeastern Europe would guide to further wartime disagreements with the United States on such matters. The withdrawal of American troops from Trieste in October 1954 marked the conclusion of nearly a decade of American participation together with Great Britain in the â€Å"temporary† management of the disputed city. Throughout that period the United States became the foremost partner in the occupation and provided the lion’s share of the funds needed to maintain AMG operations. Thousands of American soldiers spent some time in Trieste between 1945 and 1954, and a few even gave their lives whilst serving there. The United States, moreover, was the key actor in posing a lasting resolution of the dispute. United States was drawn into the Trieste disagreement as a by-product of the more general process throughout which wartime intervention in Europe led to American entanglement in the Cold War with the Soviet Union. After 1945 American policymakers at all levels came to view the Trieste question in terms of broader Cold War objectives — especially with revere to Italy and Yugoslavia. In one sense American policy on this issue was conquered by fundamentally negative goals: preventing Yugoslav control of the city and thereby restraining communism on the southeastern border of Western Europe. Yet the American presence in Trieste also symbolized the positive declaration of the principle of self-determination in accord with a fundamental liberal internationalist ideology which predated the initiation of the Cold War. The story of the American experience in Trieste can be viewed on the whole as the conjuncture of two historical developments. The first of these was the persistence into the twentieth century of the Julian Region’s momentous function as a barometer of broader pressures in European international politics. After 1945 Trieste was not just a localized focal point of national and ideological conflict but also became a deliberately important point on the edge of an increasingly sharp dividing line between two opposing systems of global order. If Trieste had not been a piece of disputed ground on that demarcation line between East and West, there would have been little motive for a major American presence there (Rabel Roberto. 1984). The other applicable historical development was, certainly, the rise of the United States to global power and its enthusiasm to exercise that power to encourage a liberal, internationalist world order. Under Woodrow Wilson’s leadership the United States first sought to use its power to this end in Europe throughout and after World War I, but with little success. As the United States became entangled in a second European war in the 1940s, it acted much more vigorously to achieve its wartime and postwar objectives, even though several of the latter were indistinctly defined. On both occasions American policymaking was a direct result of more general American aims in Europe. Throughout World War II, however, there was an absolute gulf between Washington’s general postwar aims as proclaimed in the Atlantic Charter and its efforts at developing a feasible policy mechanism to accomplish them in the Julian Region. American wartime policy toward the Julian dilemma was positively based on the hope of solving it according to Atlantic Charter principles, but policymakers in Washington failed to define the United States’ interests in the area and did not expect any significant postwar commitment there. Certainly, although American statesmen were concerned to avoid an armed clash with any of their allies, they made no pragmatic attempt to put up Yugoslav objections to Anglo-American plans for the occupation of the Julian Region. Until the crisis of May 1945 there was, quite purely, no coherent strategy for implementing American objectives in the Julian Region. When World War II ended Trieste was not yet a Cold War issue. It was throughout the crisis of May 1945 that an origin of Trieste as such first really began to take hold amongst leading policymakers in Washington. Winston Churchill and Alexander Kirk had long been urging that Anglo-American policy on the Julian Region be viewed as part of a broader anticommunist strategy, but their exhortations had not been observed by Roosevelt or the State Department. Certainly, the State Department had idealistically continued to assert its commitment to the policy of installing AMG throughout the Julian Region, as remaining cautious in practice and taking no practical steps to execute it. In the face of Yugoslav occupation of Trieste, the United States finally had to face the fact that its existing policy was vague and idealistic. Unable to rely on platitudes or to put off the issue for reasons of â€Å"military necessity,† policymakers in Washington chose to combat the Yugoslav occupation of Trieste in the name of liberal principles. State Department officials, of whom Joseph Grew was the most influential, now began to see the issue in terms of broader collective aggression. The new American president, Harry S Truman, appeared to coincide in their conclusion. However, the Americans did not wish to be too aggressive and were pleased to resolve the crisis with a working concession: the Yugoslavs withdrew from Trieste, while the United States and Britain inaudibly put aside their official policy of imposing AMG on the whole Julian Region. That outcome represented an accomplishment for the tacit spheres-of-influence approach to East-West relations which the Truman administration would take on in the immediate postwar period. In itself, Trieste was not an inner issue in the Cold War, and after the May crisis it had very little impact on the describing of the Cold War in general. It only came to prominence on occasions such as the discussions on the Italian peace treaty or the 1948 Italian elections, as the United States resurrected the issue for the opportunistic motivation of assuring a victory for the Christian Democrats. though not very important in itself, the Trieste case is of interest as an instance of the way in which Cold War politics unfolded in an area where the United States and the Soviet Union were not openly in confrontation. The deadlock between the powers that barred the establishment of the Free Territory of Trieste was a striking case of the way in which all kinds of issues were reduced to simplistic terms of direct East-West confrontation in the postwar world. For a time the predicament of Trieste became a small pawn in the great game of Cold War politics and, particularly, was locked into the more general American strategy of containment. Dispensable in the long run, pawns can nonetheless serve significant short-term functions. From the American perspective, Anglo-American control of Trieste was useful for numerous reasons: it prevented â€Å"communism† expanding into another part of Europe; it helped retain Italy as a stable member of the Western coalition; it justified an Anglo-American military presence in a potentially significant strategic point; it enabled the United States to appear as the champion of liberal principles; and, on the local level, it provided Trieste with an effectual and comparatively impartial administration. Whether laudable or self-serving, none of these American objectives was overtly related to the task of achieving a lasting, long-standing solution of the Trieste problem that Italy, Yugoslavia, and the Triestines could all believe. Ideally, the United States would have liked the return of the entire Free Territory of Trieste to Italy, but did not think that goal to merit the risk of an armed clash with the Yugoslavs. Short of that outcome, Washington usually viewed Trieste as a controllable issue and seemed ready to maintain a military presence there indefinitely. In Cold War terms there was little reason for importance in attempting to reach an eternal resolution of the dispute. After the Soviet-Yugoslav split of 1948, though, the advantages of retaining the status quo in Trieste gradually reduced. The United States now had a concern in keeping Tito out of the Soviet fold as well as sustaining the Italian government. In the past Italy’s Christian Democrats had productively played on American fears of Italian domestic instability to ensure a moderately pro-Italian line on Trieste, because Washington viewed Italy as a Cold War ally while Yugoslavia seemed a stalwart member of the Soviet bloc. Once Yugoslavia’s international status became more indefinite, Belgrade was in a position to play a similar game. The United States found itself in a perturbed situation where, because of past commitments, it lacked the autonomy to maneuver it would have liked on the Trieste issue. It is hard to assess the success of United States policy in Trieste from World War II to 1954 as that policy was often unclear in its explicit objectives. Yet there can be little doubt that American intervention â€Å"saved† Trieste for Italy — and, therefore, for the West (Kardelj Edvard. 1953). The American existence served as a stabilizing force in the area and assisted demonstrates the strength of the American commitment to Western Europe (and to the containment of communism on its borders). On the local level it helped make certain relatively impartial and efficient direction of the area until a permanent settlement could be agreed upon. Though the American stay in Trieste was needlessly prolonged, by 1954 the United States had determined the problem enduringly and at a minor cost. In Cold War terms American policy in Trieste might be termed a restrained success. That success did not essentially attest to the perspicacity of American Cold War policy in general but was in large measure due to circumstances unusual to the Trieste case. The United States would certainly not be generally as successful in the Cold War. Negotiations had been followed intimately in Washington from the moment Trieste was liberated. Certainly, the week or so during which Alexander sought a contract with Tito was a critical period in the development of American policy toward the problem. Throughout this time some American policymakers came to view the Trieste situation as an instance of totalitarian hostility and demanded firm opposition to it. The course of American policy after 10 May is particularly noteworthy in view of the mood in Washington throughout the final days of the military â€Å"race† for Trieste. Despite Kirk’s stress on the political necessity of establishing AMG in as much of the Julian Region as probable, Stimson’s caution had originally prevailed. Officials in Washington had seemed to recognize that perhaps only Alexander’s operational requirements could be met. Grew had even notified Kirk on 1 May that, if the Yugoslavs opposed the expansion of AMG, â€Å"we cannot consider the use of American troops to enforce this policy† (Harris, 1957). This apparent refutation of the State Department’s own policy stemmed largely from the fear of unsafe clashes with the Yugoslavs if they controlled the majority of the Julian Region. Trieste’s liberation on 2 May had complicated the state of affairs insofar as an armed clash was now possible even in satisfying Alexander’s minimum operational requirements. Officials in Washington continued to retort cautiously, recognizing that direct contact between the two armies at Trieste could be more volatile than the contingencies hitherto foreseen. The War Department advised stoutly against risking an armed clash, and Stimson repeated to grow his usual line that â€Å"the American people would not continue our getting entangled in the Balkan s.† Stimson believed that the problem was â€Å"another case of these younger men, the subordinates in the State Department, doing dangerous things.†(Coles Harry L., and Albert K, 1964) Grew was unrevealing, but the State Department risked no major initiatives as Alexander negotiated with Tito. Even with a crisis intimidating and Anglo-American control of Trieste itself uncertain, the State Department did not eagerly abandon its unrealistic AMG policy. While Alexander tried to safe a working compromise, Kirk continually warned his superiors in Washington of radical consequences in Italy if the original AMG strategy were set aside. The Italian government also dissents to the Americans, urging total AMG control of the Julian Region as promised. State Department officials were not adamant to these arguments. H. Freeman Matthews, Director of the Office of European Affairs, told Grew on 2 May that â€Å"when it becomes overtly known that Tito’s forces are assuming control in that area we might expect serious outbursts both in Italy and on the part of our large and significant Italian-American population here.† Grew himself expressed similar views to the president, suggestive of those American troops might have to be used to keep order in northern Italy if Yugoslav occupation of the Julian Region endured. Some State Department officials would have favored to maintain the original AMG policy but their hands were tied by Stimson’s and Truman’s antagonism as well as by Alexander’s insistence on securing only necessary military requirements. The president’s reluctance to use armed force at last brought them face to face with the basic discrepancy of having a forcefully articulated policy but no pragmatic means of implementing it. There is evidence, additionally, that the State Department was not content simply to await the outcome of the Tito-Alexander negotiations. The department wished to confer with the Soviet Union in the hope that Moscow might influence the Yugoslavs to withdraw from the Julian Region. Such a hope was predicated on the supposition already evident among American policymakers — that Stalin could manage Tito. It was of a piece with Washington’s faith in the effectiveness of summit-level negotiations amongst the great powers as a means of neutralizing local conflicts, assuring inter-Allied harmony and, presumably, securing the achievement of Atlantic Charter principles. Both Matthews and Ambassador Patterson in Belgrade suggested sounding out the Soviets even though Moscow had not yet replied to the earlier notification of American intentions in the Julian Region. When Alexander’s negotiations with Belgrade broke down on 9 May, the basic basics of the State Department’s postwar policy on Trieste were in place (Clissold Stephen, 1975). They were in large measure a rational extension of wartime goals but they also accepted intimations of an emerging Cold War atmosphere. Trieste policy would be directed by three major concerns, to be given conflicting emphases at appropriate times. Trieste itself remained in limbo as negotiations were proceeding. It was not surprising that the abrupt aftermath of war would be accompanied by displacement and tension in a city which had been the center of intensely challenging ethnic, ideological and strategic interests. In this particular case those problems were aggravated by the fact that the Yugoslav and Anglo-American contingents, both of which were resistant after 2 May, were systematically intermingled and lacked clear explanation of their respective lines of authority and accountability. Trieste’s value as a pawn in the Cold War had been approximately eliminated. It gradually became obvious to American policymakers that the Trieste question was now merely a needless source of tension between an appreciated ally and a would-be opponent of the Soviet Union. Although it remained convenient, the prospective existed for an awkward crisis and the United States became increasingly keen to reach a compromise resolution. The pressures to be purge of this occasionally exasperating problem were heightened by the local unrest and the Italo-Yugoslav tensions of 1952. By then the expedition for a Trieste settlement had become an ever more annoying challenge to Washington’s skills in alliance management. as a result, even if Clare Boothe Luce had not taken a strong personal interest in the matter, the Eisenhower supervision would still have acted much as it did to make certain that a lasting settlement was reached in 1954 by initiating four-power negotiations and by using political and economic control on Italy and Yugoslavia to bring about a final conformity. It is notable that the United States ended its presence in Trieste simply after the area had lost all effectiveness as a Cold War pawn. The United States began to work in intense for a conclusive settlement of the Trieste question after 1949. Shifting American objectives in Italy and Yugoslavia had eliminated Trieste’s worth as an instrument of Cold War policy for the United States. By the early 1950s Italy had become decisively integrated into the Western camp and was a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), as Yugoslavia remained outside the Soviet bloc. The unresolved problem of the FTT’S future was thus an unnecessary source of tension between two countries the United States believed important. Trieste was clearly no longer a Cold War problem in the sense that it had been before the Soviet-Yugoslav break. American policymakers justifiably accomplished that it was pointless to retain indefinitely a military and economic binder which now held few strategic or political advantages for their country. The United States had played a key role in the â€Å"provisional† declaration of the Trieste dispute, which had proved so annoying for so many years. Speaking in New York after the signing of the London memo of understanding, Dulles recalled that â€Å"when I became secretary of state, I made a list of the more significant problems which needed to be resolved in the interests of world peace and security. Trieste was in the top bracket of that list.† Of course, the â€Å"top bracket† also integrated more pressing and weighty problems such as Korea, Berlin, Germany, and the EDC. Alongside these issues the situation in Trieste did not seem to demand instantaneous attention and appeared â€Å"manageable† (Bass Robert, and Elizabeth Marbury, 1959). The Eisenhower administration did not actually take meaningful action on its intention to resolve the Trieste problem until provoked to do so by the threat of local violence and Luce’s potent and melodramatic reports from Italy. Thereafter, however, the American government acted more dynamically. After several false starts the United States thriving in initiating the three-phase negotiating process to evade the domestic pressures which had prevented Italy and Yugoslavia from reaching a solution. It was the United States, moreover, which ensured the success of these talks by taking advantage of its political influence in both countries, supplement by the economic force that had become a characteristic instrument of its Cold War policies in Western Europe. American policymakers did not trail a Trieste settlement simply for its own sake. It is true that after 1949 Trieste itself was no longer a central point of direct confrontation between the Western and Soviet blocs. Certainly, it was this development which made a solution potential by removing the perceived need for an enduring Anglo-American presence in the area. The Trieste issue had thus become a specific predicament in Washington’s relations with Italy and Yugoslavia. However, as had been the case since 1945, the interests of the United States in Trieste on the broadest level were still expressed in terms of the Cold War. The only change was that the larger purposes of the United States in the Cold War were now given out by terminating its commitment in Trieste. Eisenhower’s own reaction to the decree of the Trieste dispute exemplified this more general concern: â€Å"Now the way was open for Italian participation in the Western European Union and for success in negotiations for defense bases. The Communist threat to Italy had been avoided, and that nation now trod on firmer ground. And the risk of an explosion had passed.† Dulles was even more liberal in describing the implications of the Trieste settlement in October 1954: â€Å"A grave cause of dissension and unrest has been removed, so that all of South Europe can breathe more easily. Primarily, a demonstration had been given of the capability of the nations which are free of Soviet domination to resolve differences which abate them and divert them from the greatest issue of our time.† In short, the abolition of the Trieste problem was significant for the Eisenhower administration as it removed a needless distraction in Italo-Yugoslav relations, enabling both nations to stand more efficiently alongside the United States in its global confrontation with the Soviet Union. In that sense the important role of the United States in ending the dispute in 1954 marked the consummation of its policy of approaching the Trieste issue as a part of a broader Cold War strategy. Examined from today’s perspective, over fifty years after its declaration, the Trieste dispute seems at first glance to be of little implication in that broader struggle. For the United States it had been just one of the many skirmishes in the Cold War that did not involve direct American-Soviet military confrontation. Yet the Cold War has been an extensive series of such skirmishes, and Soviet and American armies have not met in face-to-face fighting in the postwar era. Basic strategies can have been conceived and approved in Washington and Moscow, but the key points at issue often concerned areas such as Trieste and concerned third parties. Viewed from that perspective, the story of American involvement in the Trieste dispute from World War II to 1954 is certainly that of the Cold War in microcosm. References: Bass Robert, and Elizabeth Marbury, eds. â€Å"The Soviet-Yugoslav Controversy, 1948-58: A Documentary Record†. New York: Prospect Books, 1959. Black Gregory Dale. â€Å"The United States and Italy, 1943-1946: The Drift towards Containment†. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, 1973.   Clissold Stephen, ed. â€Å"Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, 1939-1973: A Documentary Survey†. London: Oxford University Press for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1975.   Coles Harry L. and Albert K. Weinberg. Civil Affairs: Soldiers Become Governors. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1964. Conrad Allison Alan. â€Å"Allied Military Government of Venezia Giulia and Trieste — Its History and Organization†. M.A. thesis, University of Maryland, 1956. Harris C. R. S. Allied Military Administration of Italy, 1943- 1945. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1957. Heim Keith Merle. â€Å"Hope without Power: Truman and the Russians, 1945†. Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1973.   Kardelj Edvard. Trieste and Yugoslav-Italian Relations. New York: Yugoslav Information Center, 1953.   Kay Robin. â€Å"Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939-1945: Italy†, Vol. 2, From Cassino to Trieste. Wellington: Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1967. Lees Lorraine Mary. â€Å"American Foreign Policy towards Yugoslavia, 1941-1949†. Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, 1976. Modisett Lawrence E. â€Å"The Four-Cornered Triangle: British and American Policy towards Yugoslavia, 1939-1945†. 2 vols. Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University, 1981. Rabel Roberto. â€Å"Between East and West: Trieste, the United States and the Cold War, 1943-1954†. Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1984. Samuel Rosenman, ed., Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, vol.10 (1938-1950), 314.